Professional Hopes and Goals

Believe it or not we are in our final week of this eight week journey on Perspectives on Diversity and Equity! The past eight weeks have flown by and while they have been extremely challenging and exhausting, they have always been very eye opening and enlightening. I feel as though I have learned a great deal about myself, my colleagues, my field, and society. There is still so much more to learn and this journey to becoming an anti-bias educator will be long and eventful! In this last week's blog entry, I need to reflect on my learning and create one hope and one goal around the issues discussed throughout the course.


My hope for the future for working with children and families of diverse backgrounds is to make them feel appreciated, respected, welcomed, comfortable being who they are and understand that it will be celebrated. My hope is to make them realize they have so much to offer, just as EVERY child from EVERY diverse background does. My hope is to help them acclimate to the culture of society while preserving and celebrating their own culture at the same time. I truly wish to work hand in hand with the families and children to create opportunities for a bright future for ALL children in my classroom. I think I can do this based upon the knowledge I have gained in this course, my caring and nurturing demeanor, and the journey I will continue to take towards anti-bias education.


Additionally, one goal I would hope to create for the field of Early Childhood Education in relation to the issues of diversity, equity, and social justice would be a tiered goal. First of all, I would like all educators to be properly trained, as we are being trained through these courses at Walden, to begin a journey towards anti-bias education and ways in which to include and incorporate children and families from all cultures and backgrounds. Secondly, families need to be more involved and included more often in early childhood programs for their children, regardless of their diverse backgrounds, allowing for ALL parents and families to build a strong partnership with the educators and their children from the start of their child's educational career.


Lastly, I would like to extend my thanks to my colleagues for all of your continued support in this course, as well as our prior courses together. I have had the honor and privilege of working with many of you repeatedly throughout our journey through this program and I smile each time I begin a course and see a familiar name. While the idea of online courses seemed disconnected and distant prior to beginning, I realize now how inaccurate that truly is based upon the bonds and friendships I feel lucky enough to have formed so far in this journey. This course was not our easiest; the workload and content was exhausting, challenging, flat out DAUNTING and OVERWHELMING….BUT we have survived yet again! We are coming to the finish line of another course in the program and I couldn't be more proud to have colleagues as supportive, knowledgeable, and caring as each of you. Here's to each of you and our next adventures together! :)


--Ashley

Welcoming Families From Around the World

Hard to believe Week 7 of this course is upon us already! I have to say that while this class has been challenging I have truly enjoyed it overall. For our blog assignment this week, we have to envision we are a part of a specific scenario and discuss ways in which we would approach the situation. The scenario is as follows:

You are working in an early childhood setting of your choice - a hospital, a child care center, a social service agency. You receive word that the child of a family who has recently emigrated from a country you know nothing about will join your group soon. You want to prepare yourself to welcome the child and her family. Luckily, you are enrolled in a course about diversity and have learned that in order to support families who have immigrated you need to know more than surface facts about their country of origin. 

In order to imagine this scenario, I have chosen the country of Zimbabwe, as it is a country I know little to nothing about their language, experiences, culture, etc. If I were in this situation and learned of this new student coming into my classroom, I would attempt to learn more about the country, culture, and more. However, this would only be surface facts and information that may not necessarily be applicable to this specific student. Therefore, it would be crucial to find additional ways to learn about the country and this specific family. In order to properly welcome and work with a child from another country and culture one is unfamiliar with, one must first understand the concept of cultural responsiveness. "To be culturally responsive is to be open to those differences, to be open to those complexities, and realizing that not everybody thinks the way you do, that not everybody sees the world the same way you do," (Laureate Education, Inc., 2010). Considering cultural responsiveness, a few possible ways to help the student and family feel welcomed by utilizing culturally responsive practices could be:

1. Make the children feel important, feel valued, feel understood and appreciated in the classroom and in the home. Ask the child and parents about their likes, interests, language, culture, beliefs, country, and more. Having important conversations and taking the time to get to know them individually will set a precedent and help them to feel valued and invested in the education process, even when in a new country.
2. Incorporate the diversity in your classroom into classroom decor. Allow students to bring in or design items that represent their culture, heritage, family, beliefs, etc. to put on display throughout the classroom. Children can explain what it is and why it is important to be shared with their classmates. This will help students of all diverse populations feel comfortable and safe within the classroom environment. 
3. Create opportunities for children to share their family history and heritage with their peers and teachers in the classroom. It could be in the form of a family show and tell, traditions project, and more. It will help students to learn about the diverse cultures thriving within our society and promote tolerance, understanding, and acceptance, while also helping the child feel equally important and valued as other children in the class, regardless of race, ethnicity, gender, etc. 
4. Invite families into the classroom frequently and keep them actively involved in their child's educational experience. This will allow you to learn more about the child and their culture, as well as their personal family values and family identity. Parents can come in as volunteers for events or in day to day classroom activities or just to observe. 
5. Make visits to the child's home to interview and observe family life in this environment. This will show you are invested in the child's well-being and education just as much as the family and it will give great insight into the family's perspectives, routines, culture, and more. Understanding the family in this way will allow you to communicate effectively and make a positive difference in this child's life. You will be able to utilize what you learn to accommodate the child within your classroom. 

By completing the following guidelines and examples of cultural responsiveness, it would positively impact and benefit the lives of the children and families within your classroom, as well as the teachers and staff. These guidelines could make a positive impact for children and families in that they will feel important, feel appreciated and respected. It will instill a positive foundation for their future in education. Additionally, the guidelines could positively impact the educator(s) involved as it will allow them to learn more about various cultures and understand ways to incorporate diversity into the classroom to allow ALL students, regardless of background, to feel welcome, comfortable, safe, respected, and appreciated so they can learn and grow in a community of learners. 

References: 

Laureate Education, Inc. (2013). Cultural responsiveness. [Video webcast]. Retrieved from      

     https://class.waldenu.edu/webapps/blackboard/content/listContent.jsp?course_id=_4067193
     _1&content_id=_13667522_1&courseTocLabel=Resources

The Personal Side of Bias, Prejudice, & Oppression

Welcome back! We continue with this course in Week 6, discussing more and more controversial and emotional topics. From what I am gathering from the discussion posts this week, each of us (including myself - BIG TIME) has been experiencing a bit of a roller coaster of emotions over the last six weeks: frustration, anger, disappointment, confusion, pride, etc. As we continue to learn about diversity, culture, perspectives, equity, isms, micro aggressions, and overall equality to all human beings in our society, my eyes continue to be opened to instances I had not considered previously and to my own views and biases in that regard. While I have always considered myself to be open, tolerant, and accepting - overall bias-free - I, along with some of my colleagues, have been shocked and saddened to discover that I have committed micro aggressions against individuals due to some type of ism….unconsciously, unintentionally, and without aiming to hurt or harm. I was heartbroken when analyzing my own life and experiences and realizing I have not lived free of bias as I had always thought prior to this course; however, I am taking this as motivation to go down this extremely daunting and challenging road to becoming an anti-bias educator.

That being said, this week for our blog assignment we needed to revisit and analyze an example of an incident in which I, or someone I know, experienced bias, prejudice, or oppression and describe the scenario for discussion and analysis.  While learning about these ideas, I have been relating to one specific ism and specific encounter(s) or experience(s) in regard to this ism lately….that being sexism and being sexually objectified as well as mistreated and disrespected by a male parent of one of my student's from my class. However, I would like to turn the tides for this specific example this week as that prior example was more intentional. For the example this week I refer to an act of micro aggression, which was unintentional yet continuous in my experiences. Again this example could be considered sexism in some way, shape, or form but it took place with friends and was an unconscious and unintentional blight committed with me being the recipient.

Growing up, I was a bit of a tomboy. I always played sports, especially softball, and was surrounded by sports my whole life - either watching, talking about, or playing at home, school, on a team, or with friends and family. By the time I had reached high school, I was at an age where (as most teenage girls) I began to have "crushes" on boys. Being a tomboy and interested in sports and attempting to avoid the drama, I had several male friends, as well as female friends. It was awesome because I always felt comfortable since I knew and loved sports so we always had that in common to talk about. They respected me for this and for some this was the basis of our friendship. However, the comments made in passing were frustrating at times and completely harsh on my sensitive self-identity and self-perception. While my guy friends had the best of intentions, they had no idea what they were saying was being perceived by me as hurtful and frustrating. They would say things like "You know so much about this for a girl" or "It's so nice to hang out because you're like one of the guys". Both comments were equally frustrating and upsetting as the first felt like a punch to the guy - just because I am a girl means that I can't play, like, or know sports? That felt so WRONG! The second was just as difficult to hear because yes…I AM A GIRL… and yes… I LIKE you. Due to the second comment, a follow up sometimes occurred - "But you're like a little sister to me, I could never see you like that so it's best we just stay friends." All of the aforementioned comments, as I stated, are unintentionally harmful to a teenage girl's self-esteem, self-identity, and more. During such instances I remember feeling low, feeling like I did not have the respect I wanted or deserved, feeling like it shouldn't be one extreme of a guy abusing his rights with you because you're a female or the other extreme of not being considered a female just because you participate in what used to be considered a "predominantly male activity".

I think that such instances, while innocent and unintentional in nature, are detrimental and can take away from the equity of women versus men in our society. It is not fair to portray certain things for men to do but not for women - this goes against equity or providing opportunities for ALL human beings, regardless of age, race, gender, ethnicity, culture, identity, sexual orientation, etc. Even though my male friends are wonderful and had the best of intentions and would be the first in line to "handle" any person who "gave me a hard time" or "hurt me" in ANY way, they could not wrap their heads around what they themselves had done with just a few words in passing conversation. In order for things like this to stop perpetuating on the small scale like this or on an even larger scale like my previous examples last week with sexism, our society and our society's expectations MUST change. We have come so far through the years and I think we still have a great many battles to overcome in order to have a truly just society. However, I do strongly believe we can get there, whether it be 5 months, 5 years, 500 years from now, I do believe it will happen….eventually. :)

Until next time...

Practicing Awareness of Microaggressions

For week 4 of this course, we began to discuss the topic of microaggressions and the importance of being aware of such instances taking place in the world around you and in your own world and conversations. In order to complete this assignment, we had to discuss an example of an observed microaggression instance taking place that involved us or happened around us in the world.

First of all, let's begin with the concept of microaggression. If you are like me, prior to this week I had never even heard of this term before. However, upon researching this week I have come to understand the meaning and importance of knowing what this term means. Dr. Sue began talking about this concept by stating, "There are times when verbal behaviors create feelings of uncertainty, inferiority, or marginalization, even though no offense was consciously intended. Such behaviors are called microaggressions," (Laureate Education, Inc., 2011). The important thing to realize that the majority of the time a microaggression takes place it is unintentional and unconsciously taking place. Dr. Sue continues, "Microaggressions are brief everyday indignities that are verbal, behavioral, or environmental that may be intentional or unintentionally communicated to women, to people of color, to gay and lesbians that have an insulting message behind them that often times causes severe psychological distress and harm," (Laureate Education, Inc., 2011).

Understanding what this term meant and the depth of the consequences behind it helped me to be more aware of my own decisions and conversations, as well as those happening around me at work, at home, with friends, at restaurants, at stores, etc. After spending the first part of the week reading and becoming familiar with this concept, I observed an example of microaggression taking place while at dinner with my boyfriend and my dad on Wednesday evening. We were sitting at a pub for dinner and were at a table close to the bar area of the restaurant. There were two groups of people sitting nearby - one group at a table next to us and one group sitting at the bar a few feet away. I couldn't help but overhear the group at the table sharing jokes and using language that was not necessarily appropriate. The group at the table was a mixed group of men and women of various races and ethnicities. The group at the bar was similar but only two men and one woman. The group at the table made comments in a joking or friendly manner in regards to women and African Americans - both of which were in both groups. I felt uncomfortable with the conversation, especially when noticing one person from each of the groups seemed uncomfortable and offended, even though it was evident that was not the intention. This was an eye opening moment for me to witness this first hand taking place in society. I not only was aware of the microaggression, but also the perpetrator and recipient's responses to it, to which I would not have noticed before in the same way.

This observation helped me to understand the gravity of the situation and of the overall concept of microaggression. While we may not realize what we are doing, this can be harmful to the recipient. As people, especially Early Childhood Educators, we need to become aware of our unconscious biases or stereotypes in order to avoid making our children and families feel victim to such encounters. The instance that I had witnessed was a perfect example of the perpetrator feeling oblivious to the potential harm they just enlisted on a friend, as well as on a stranger who overheard the conversation. Our children and families should not be subject to such instances so it is important that we understand this issue and work on overcoming and preventing it, if possible.




References:

Laureate Education (Producer). (2011a). Microaggressions in everyday life [Video file]. Retrieved from https://class.waldenu.edu.

Perspectives on Diversity and Culture

Week 3 is upon us! For this week, we needed to examine and analyze the perspective on diversity and culture of others, as well as our own. For this assignment, I contacted several of my colleagues in my building to share their thoughts on this matter and will share their responses below, as well as my own analysis of the findings.

I had asked each of my colleagues to provide their definition  of culture and diversity, the similarities and differences between the two concepts, and why are these concepts important to education. Here are the responses I received:

• Our building ELL teacher:
• "Culture is a community of people, families who share common experiences
  that shape the way they understand the world. Culture is a strong part
  of people's lives. It influences their views, values, their hopes,
  worries and fears. It is no wonder many common cultures tend to stick
  together because they feel comfortable and share a commonality.
  Diversity to me refers to celebrating the many diverse cultures and/or
  communities. In order for people to commit to working on diversity,
  every person needs to feel that they will be included and important.
  Each person needs to know that their cultures is important to others.
  This is the only way I believe will bring the many different cultures
  together and unite. Learning about cultural differences can bring people
  closer together. It can show us just exactly how much we really do have
  in common. As educators, I believe we need to celebrate the many diverse
  cultures we have in our community in order to build an environment that
  feels safe for all."

• Our In Class Support Teacher (K-1): 
• "Two of my favorite things to talk about considering my trip to Africa
  where I saw it all come together. Yes, I had my opinions of each but
  while working in classrooms in Ghana and coming home to student teach, I
  was able to really see the impact both have on myself and my students.
  My personal definition of culture is that it is a way of life. Culture
  is defined by what we wear, what we eat, what we believe in, what we do
  for fun, and what we celebrate. Diversity is how cultures are different.
  It defines the uniqueness of a culture. Diversity is embracing those
  unique differences among cultures and looking at life through the eyes
  of another person. Through that we realize our similarities and our
  differences among people across the world. I feel that culture and
  diversity are important to education because learning about the world
  around us is endless. There is always something new to learn. Not only
  does it shape us academically, but culture and diversity teach us life
  lessons. They make us more appreciative of what we have and who we are.
  It makes us more appreciative of one another."

• Our building principal:
• "I believe culture is a person's background and the experiences they have
  that help to influence their character and identity. 
  Diversity is having a wide variety of backgrounds and cultures. 
  I don't know that they are the same or different.  It is more that they
  are connected because having a range of cultures and nationalities is
  what brings diversity to your school.
  
  It is important to share culture in education because it is a person's
  background, traditions, customs and way of life.  This helps us to
  understand and appreciate our differences.
  
  It is important to have diversity in education because you have that
  first-hand experience and knowledge of other cultures instead of
  vicarious learning.  It becomes more personal and therefore more
  explicit."

• Our district Reading Specialist:
• "Culture is defined as characteristics of people who are categorized together by race, religion, sexual orientation, and ethnicity.   Diversity to me is the ability for differences to coexist together, with some type of mutual understanding or acceptance present. Acceptance of different viewpoints is key. Also, diversity means inclusion of everyone and inclusion of everyone's viewpoints and perspectives. Our ability to give every child a chance to succeed in school depends upon our understanding of culture and learning styles. Effective educational practices must derive from an understanding of the ways that individuals learn. Knowing each student, especially his or her culture, is essential preparation for facilitating, structuring, and validating successful learning for all students."

• One of our Preschool Inclusion teachers: 
• "This is fun and so important to instill at such a young age! Culture is the totality of traditions, beliefs, foods, clothes and processes of a certain group of people. Diversity is the differences among the cultures, with a connotation of acceptance and respect for each.These concepts are important to education for teachers and students alike. A mutual respect among peers for each other's cultural differences, makes for an environment more conducive to learning. Teachers must be cognizant of the cultural diversities among students to fully understand certain behaviors as they occur. Actions, or lack thereof are often tied to cultural norms which are different from our own. "

Let me begin by stating I was so impressed and overwhelmed by the responses I received from each of my colleagues. They each took the time to truly consider the meaning of these concepts, as well as their importance. I feel as though we share a common view on such aspects and understand the importance it has for society, as well as for our students, in particular. We learned it's importance in class this and last week but I am glad to see it is understood and appreciated within our building by many wonderful educators and administrators, as well. As Derman-Sparks and Edwards (2010) state, "The word culture refers to how particular groups of people live," (p. 55). As you can see, we all agree with this concept. Diversity refers to the varying types of cultures we encounter in our country and in our classrooms. We must encourage and embrace these concepts within our classrooms to set a positive precedent for the children to follow in being tolerant, accepting, understanding, and willing to learn from and work together with people who are similar and different from you. 

I feel as though the professionals I discussed the concepts with this week had perfectly pieced together the puzzle of culture and diversity, discussing the important meanings of each concept, as well as the reasons why it is important in the world and in education, as we have learned in our readings. Additionally, I feel as though my own viewpoints on these topics are very similar to each of the aforementioned passages. I do not feel as though important interpretations were omitted or neglected as each response embraced the importance of being accepting and learning from one another as our culture defines us and diversity allows us to celebrate and learn from our differences. I strongly believe that hearing these responses from my trusted colleagues has solidified my own understanding, perspective, and passion about this subject. 

Until next week…

References:

Derman-Sparks, L., & Edwards, J. O. (2010). Anti-bias education for young children and

     ourselves. Washington, DC: National Association for the Education of Young Children

     (NAEYC).

My Family Culture

I am embarking on a new journey in my 6th grad class, Perspectives on Diversity and Equity. This week in class we had to post a response to a scenario, discussing key points of our responses to this scenario. The scenario is as follows:

A major catastrophe has almost completely devastated the infrastructure of your country. The emergency government has decided that the surviving citizens will be best served if they are evacuated to other countries willing to take refugees. You and your immediate family are among the survivors of the catastrophic event. However, you have absolutely no input into the final destination or in any other evacuation details. You are told that your host country's culture is completely different from your own, and that you might have to stay there permanently. You are further told that, in addition to one change of clothes, you can only take 3 small items with you. You decide to take three items that you hold dear and that represent your family culture.


In response to this scenario we must answer the following questions…
1. A description of the three items you would choose.
2. How you would explain to others what each of these items mean to you.
3. Your feelings if, upon arrival, you were told that you could only keep one personal item and have to give up the other two things
4. Any insights you gained about yourself, your family culture, diversity, and/or cultural differences in general, as a result of this exercise.



If I could only choose three items to take with me to my new home, I would choose my ring, an album of family photos, and my softball glove. The ring I am referring to is a ring my best friend bought for each of the girls in our group of friends for Christmas in High School. This ring was purchased for us as a gesture to keep us connected and strong after we discovered one of our best friends was diagnosed with Leukemia. Less than a year later, my best friend who purchased this ring suddenly passed away, shortly followed by the passing of my friend who had Leukemia, all during my senior year of high school. This ring represents my love and friendship with these two angels and without it I do not feel complete. It reminds me of happy times, good memories, love, friends, family. It ties all important things in my life together and I have not gone a day without wearing it for the past 10 years.

The second item I would choose is a photo album filled with pictures of my loved ones, including my boyfriend, my dog, my family, and my friends. This is a treasured item as I would be able to carry them all with me along with the memories to get through the tough road ahead, especially if I had lost any of them in the process of this catastrophe. The third and final item I would choose is my softball glove. The reasoning behind this is that I come from a very sports oriented family and most of my memories growing up are surrounded by this glove. I have fond memories with my dad, brother, mom, cousins, aunts, uncles, friends, and grandparents. This is one of my passions and hobbies and would be a great outlet during stressful times.

If I were to be told I could only keep one of the items, I would be completely devastated. It would already be difficult to choose just three items and lose so many loved ones in such a catastrophe. If I had no other option but to keep one item only from the aforementioned list, I would choose my ring. The ring represents so many things in my life and has such a deep meaning that would keep me connected to my loved ones at all times and is something I could keep with me at all times everyday.

After completing the readings and viewings this week, I have taken the concept of culture and diversity into deep consideration. Prior to this week, I had not seriously considered something such as a dynamic culture and family culture. I had not previously taken time to consider where I fall in regards to these cultures. I have gained a better insight and understanding about the meaning of each of these cultures and where I stand within them, as well as how to promote tolerance and acceptance and understanding within early childhood for children who fall within varying cultures.

Until next time...

When I Think of Research...

Welcome back!!! :)

It has been a few weeks but we have been busy in class with research! This is our 8th and FINAL week of this course on Research Competency. It has been a busy 8 weeks but I do feel as though I have learned a great deal in regards to research simulations, studies, designs, and more.

In our final week, there are a few questions to help us reflect upon our learning and growth over the 8 weeks we have experienced in this course. The questions and my reflections are as follows:

• What insights have you gained about research from taking this course?
• "Research is conceptualized here as a systematic investigation of a topic or issue that is culturally specific, and which seeks information and/or solutions. It can begin with a question, concern, situation, or controversy," (Grieshaber, 2010, p. 179). I have come to understand the importance of research, as well as the various integral components of research and design, over the last eight weeks of this course. I was unaware at the depth of each component and the variety of issues, challenges, and concerns to consider when designing a research simulation or study. The idea of research has proven to be daunting but rewarding. It is, by far, not an easy task to complete and is something that must require a very lengthy amount of time, dedication, and effort to complete and conduct a study successfully. 

• In what ways have your ideas about the nature of doing research changed?
• I think my ideas and views on research as a whole have drastically changed throughout this course. However, my ideas and understandings of the nature of doing research have changed in that I did not realize the depth of the process, design, implementation, etc. that research requires. I have come to understand that completing and conducting a research study seems more ideal to do with a team of researchers in that you can share responsibilities, ideas, planning, analyzing, etc. throughout the process. Due to the intricacy of each piece of the research puzzle, it is a very well-thought-out process that takes ample amounts of time to conduct and complete. A research study most likely could take months or years to conduct effectively to achieve appropriate results. These are just a few ideas I was unclear of or misunderstanding prior to this course.

• What lessons about planning, designing, and conducting research in early childhood did you learn?
• The biggest piece to the puzzle of early childhood research I learned was the importance, relevance, and proper handling of the inclusion of children in a research study. The child as a participant presents an entirely new perspective, outlook, and understanding from a child's eyes in relation to your study. However, ethical concerns must be considered. I think that the ethical concerns and implications, as well as the use of variables, hypotheses, and questions within a design and study are the major components I have come to better understand and learn about. I had not previously considered some of the ethical concerns within a research study. Additionally, when designing and conducting research, I was unaware and unsure of the importance and necessity of things like variables, questions, and hypotheses yet I better understand this now. The most important piece I have come to understand is that there are SO many components to designing a research study to consider that the researcher must complete each step one at a time to ensure nothing is an oversight or forgotten. This will ensure an accurate, effective, and appropriate research study with results that can make an impact on the field of Early Childhood Education.

• What were some of the challenges you encountered - and in what ways did you meet them? 
• The idea of research was scary, overwhelming, daunting. Entering this course I was a nervous wreck. I was extremely unsure of myself and my abilities within this area. I think one of my biggest challenges was getting out of my own way! I have had so much doubt and so much nervous energy surrounding this topic that I have been overwhelmed by the information to read, comprehend, understand, and apply throughout this course. Additionally, a challenge I have encountered throughout the eight weeks was being able to clearly and accurately understand the information to be read and processed in order to accurately and correctly apply it to my own research simulation. I have appreciated all of Dr. Darragh's feedback week to week as it has greatly helped me overcome my anxiety in regards to this course. 

• What are some of the ways your perceptions of an early childhood professional have been modified as a result of this course?
• As we near the end of this course, I have truly come to understand the importance of research in general, but especially for the field of Early Childhood Education. My outlook on research has changed, as well as it's importance to this field. Learning about incorporating children into research and the implications and impacts this has on our field and our understanding of children have greatly helped to open my eyes and my mind to research possibilities. There are SO many topics and arenas to explore in regards to research within the Early Childhood field. I think this course has definitely piqued my interest and perception in learning more in terms of child development within the research field. 

That's all for now. Another course is coming to an end, which means I am close to completion of my 5th course, also known as the halfway mark! :) :) Best of luck in future courses to all of my classmates and colleagues! I hope to meet you again in another course. Enjoy the one week break before summer courses and best of luck one and all! :)

-Ashley-

References:

Mac Naughton, G., Rolfe, S.A., & Siraj-Blatchford, I. (2010). Doing early childhood research: International perspectives on theory and practice (2nd ed.). New York, NY: McGraw-Hill.